Praxis Exam SLP Speech Language Pathology

016 Hearing Impairment

2010-12-23T08:59:00.001-08:00

Hearing Impairment

By age 55, approximately 13 percent of all women have impaired hearing. Deafness is the most common disability in the United States. Women in the 75-80 age group have a one in three chance of hearing loss.

http://slpexam.com

015 Down Syndrome

2010-12-16T07:49:00.001-08:00

Down Syndrome

Individuals with Down Syndrome experience delays in oral-motor skills and fine and gross motor skills. Slower reaction times and slower postural reactions characterize their motor patterns. Twenty-five percent of infants with Down Syndrome have congenital heart defects, and 10 percent have a higher incidence of thyroid disorders. Infants and children with Down Syndrome also are at higher risk for upper respiratory infections and have a higher incidence of acute myeloid leukemia.

http://nespaexam.com

011 Disabilities

2010-12-08T08:14:00.001-08:00

Disabilities

The disability community includes 54 million people in the United States and half a billion of people around the world. The National Organization on Disability (NOD) promotes the full and equal participation of America’s 54 million men, women and children with disabilities in all aspects of life. The organization was founded in 1982 at the conclusion of the United Nations International Year of Disabled Persons, NOD is the only national disability network organization concerned with all disabilities, all age groups, and all disability issues. It is funded entirely by private donations and accepts no government funding.

http://nespaexam.com

010 Pneumococcal Disease

2010-12-06T09:04:00.000-08:00

Pneumococcal Disease

Pneumococcal Diseases include bacteremia (bloodstream infection) and bacterial meningitis (brain and spinal cord infection), a potentially fatal condition that may leave many children with life-long disabilities such as developmental delay, seizures, deafness or impaired vision. Pneumococcous bacteria, or streptococcus pneumonia, also is a major cause of pneumonia, sinusitis, and otitis media.

In the United States, there are approximately 16,000 cases of invasive Pneumococcal Disease each year among children under age 5. Pneumococcal Disease in children costs the United States health care system an estimated $ 1.5 billion annually. Worldwide, more than 1.2 million children die each year as a result of Pneumococcal Disease.

http://nespaexam.com

009 American Heart Association

2010-11-30T07:56:00.001-08:00

American Heart Association (AHA)

The fight against cardiovascular disease, including stroke, claims the lives of more than 959,000 Americans each year. During 1998-1999, the American Heart Association (AHA) spent approximately $327 million dollars on research support, public and professional education, and community programs. With approximately 4 million volunteers, the AHA is the largest voluntary organization.

http://nespaexam.com

008 Career Opportunities in Communication Disorders

2010-11-29T07:54:00.000-08:00

Career Opportunities in Communication Disorders

With a 28 percent increase in careers in speech-language pathology and audiology predicted for the year 2000, many opportunities are available for those who want a challenging and rewarding profession in a healthcare or education setting. Graduates in Communication Disorders can expect to find jobs in a variety of settings including university clinics, public schools, hospitals, private practice and numerous community agencies.

http://nespaexam.com

007 Understanding People, Making People Understood

2010-11-24T10:02:00.000-08:00

Understanding People, Making People Understood

You talk to family, friends, and colleagues every day. You use your hearing, speech, and language all the time. Most people take these abilities for granted, but illness or accidental injury can impair your ability to hear and talk. Anyone, at any age, at any time can be affected. There are 42 million Americans-one out of every six-with a communication disorder. Each one can be helped in some way by a speech-language pathologist, audiologist, or speech, language, and hearing scientist.

http://nespaexam.com

006 American Speech-Language-Hearing Association

2010-11-22T08:12:00.001-08:00

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA)

The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) is the national professional, scientific, and credentialing organization for more than 83,000 audiologists, speech-language pathologists, and speech, language, and hearing scientists. Established in 1925, ASHA’s mission is to promote the interests of and provide the highest quality services for professionals in audiology, speech-language pathology, and speech, language, and hearing science and to advocate for people with communication disorders.

http://nespaexam.com

005 Easy Does It for Fluency

2010-11-18T08:33:00.001-08:00

Therapy Materials for Fluency

Easy Does It for Fluency Preschool/Primary

Easy Does It for Fluency is a step by step fluency-shaping program for young stutterers (ages 2-6). It features a comprehensive, two-book program. The therapy manual provides activities with goals and objectives, suggestions for indirect and direct therapy, techniques for involving support providers, take-home letters, and sample lesson plans for individualizing therapy. The materials book provides reproducible activity sheets including: play oriented tasks, puppets, cut and paste activities, and rebus stories.

http://nespaexam.com

004 A Language Assessment Toll for the Birth to 3 Population

2010-11-16T08:32:00.001-08:00

A Language Assessment Tool for the Birth to Three Population

The Rosetti Infant-Toddler Language Scale

The Rosetti Infant-Toddler Language Scale is a criterion referenced measure for children ages birth to three. It assists the clinician in collecting reliable samples of infant behavior by examining six preverbal and verbal domains. Features of the assessment include a way to assess infant gestures, pragmatics, play, interaction and attachment, language and comprehension, and language expression. Direct elicitation of behavior, spontaneous observation of behavior, or parent report may be used to collect information for each area.

http://nespaexam.com

003 Seven Stages of Language Functioning

2010-11-11T07:53:00.001-08:00

Seven Stages of Language Functioning

Stage 1: Interpreted Communication. (Birth to 4 months)

Stage 2: Intentional Communication (4 to 9 months)

Stage 3: Single Words (9 to 18 months)

Stage 4: Word Combinations (18 to 24 months)

Stage 5: Early Syntax (24 to 36 months)

Stage 6: Syntax Mastery (3 to 5 years)

Stage 7: Complete Generative Grammar (5 years and up)

http://nespaexam.com

002 An Overview of the Nervous System (Part 1)

2010-11-09T08:40:00.001-08:00

An overview of the nervous system (Part I):

The human nervous system is a complex union composed of the brain, spinal cord, and all associated nerves, ganglia, nuclei, and sense organs. This system is responsible for mediating human behavior.

Brain:
The brain is a highly specialized part of the nervous system. The brain is responsible for higher level functions including the ability to reason and to use a complex language system.

Cerebral Hemispheres:
The cerebral hemispheres are the major divisions of the brain. Located in the brain and responsible for dividing the brain into individual hemispheres which have different responsibilities.

Four Lobes:
The four lobes of the human brain consist of the frontal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe, and parietal lobe. These lobes are the major landmarks of the human brain. Respectively, each of the four lobes is said to be responsible for specific functions.

Fissures:
Fissures are the grooves in the brain. They are the valleys. These grooves are found on the surface of the human brain and serve no specific function except to serve as landmarks and cross sections of the human brains four lobes.

http://nespaexam.com

001 A Review of Language Assessments (ASSET)

2010-11-04T13:20:00.000-07:00

A Review of the Language Assessments:

Assessing Semantic Skills Through Everyday Themes (ASSET)

Norms for ages 3 through 9.11 years. The ASSET contains an expressive and receptive section. The receptive section includes the following sub-tests: identifying labels, categories, attributes, functions, and definitions. The expressive section includes the following sub-tests: stating labels, categories, attributes, functions, and definitions. The ASSET provides the examiner with an age equivalent and standard scores. It is used to assess clients with word finding difficulties or low vocabulary. The ASSET takes approximately 30-40 minutes to administer.

http://nespaexam.com

Basic Human Communication

2009-10-22T18:01:00.000-07:00

01A: Language Acquisition and Learning Theory

- What is language acquisition?

Language acquisition is the very complex process by which humans acquire language. Although researchers agree that language acquisition is complex, the manner of which an individual acquires language has been long debated. The debate revolves around how much nature and nurture influence language learning.

- What are three theories of language acquisition?

Language acquisition theories can be categorized into three views:
(1) environmental theory, (2) biological theory and (3) cognitive theory.

Learning theorists believe in the environmental theory of language acquisition. Learning theorists, such as Skinner, believe a child has no innate knowledge of language and is born with a “blank slate”. They believe that behavior and language is learned and is based on interaction with the environment. They believe that language is no different than any other behavior in that it is learned and it is an operant behavior. The environment effects language development and how one uses language is affected directly by the environment.

Nativists believe in the biological theory of language acquisition. Nativists, such as Chomsky and Lenneberg, believe that language is an innate system that emerges as the nervous system develops. Chomsky and Lenneberg had very similar ideas. They believe that various language development stages that a child goes through occur not because of learning but because of maturity…that is that language development is biologically driven. They believe that language is a function of physiological processes. They do believe that you must be exposed to language to speak, but that ultimately language is preprogrammed and the environment does not necessarily change the fixed order or sequence of acquisition.

Cognitive theorists believe in the cognitive theory of language acquisition. Cognitive theorists, such as Piaget, believe that language is a series of cognitive discoveries that a person makes, and when experience and maturity coincide language will be discovered. Cognitive theory is based on concept development and reasoning processes. Cognitive theorists believe that the interaction with the environment as well as the maturation of the nervous system results in cognitive development. They believe that acquisition occurs when an individual exhibits “readiness”, meaning that realizations occur when the individual is exposed to critical experiences and are cognitively ready to process the experiences. They believe that language is not learned, but rather it is discovered. They believe that skills have prerequisite skills.

- Important terms regarding language acquisition:
• Critical period (Lenneberg): evidence that primary acquisition of first language is dependent upon certain neurological skills; between 2 and 13 years
• Mands (Skinner): commands
• Tact (Skinner): come in contact with; acknowledging intent
• Adaptation (Piaget): ability to adapt to environment
• Cognitive dissonance: unable to process certain information because it is out of place
• Object permanence: realization that things exist even though you can’t see them
• Causality: cognitive discovery that things happen for a reason
• Means-ends: realization that you can use things to make things happen
• Representational thinking (symbolic play): discovery that certain things can stand for other things
• Imitation: ability for individual to do what someone else just did

Fluency Disorders 04

2007-06-11T11:13:00.000-07:00

The A,B,C's of stuttering

1) Affective- The emotional aspect of the stutterer. This deals with the stutterers overall emotional reaction to specific(positive or negative)

2) Behavioral- The primary and secondary behaviors displayed by the stutterer. Primary behaviors include involuntary behaviors such as multiple syllable repetitions of sounds and words. Secondary behaviors include the coping behaviors a stutter displays as to avoid the stuttering. For example, a voluntary head jerk or lip purse during the act of stuttering as to avoid or escape from a stuttering block.

3) Cognitive- The cognitive aspect of stuttering deals with the speech and non-speech associated belief system and attitudes of the stutterer. In other words, how the stutterer feels about their speech in specific situations, around certain people, etc.

Fluency Disorders 03

2007-06-11T11:06:00.000-07:00

Van Riper's Four Tracks

Van Riper (1982) studied the course of dysfluencies n his patients and found that there were four tracks along which stuttering appeared to develop.

Track I

In track I Van Riper found that the symptoms of stuttering were first effortless, unhurried repetitions of syllables and words, marked by extreme fluctuations and long remissions. As the disorder progressed the repetitions became more rapid and irregular. The child also became concerned with their stuttering and made attempts to avoid it. This track typically resembles the behaviors of a "classic stutter"

Track II

In track II Van Riper found that the symptoms of stuttering were characterized by rapid, irregular syllable and word repetition from early on. Later, silent intervals, revisions, and interjections appeared. In this track, the child was not too concerned with dysfluency and typically did not do anything to avoid it. This track typically resembles the behaviors of a "clutterer"

Track III

In track III Van Riper found that the onset of stuttering was sudden, the child's speech was characterized by complete blockage. Often the child was unable to speak. Fear, tension, avoidance and breathing abnormalities soon followed. This track typically resembles the behaviors of a "psychogenic dysfluent"

Track IV

In track IV Van Riper identified a group of children that began to stutter suddenly. The dysfluencies consisted of repetition of phrases, words and syllables. However, in this track the child did not show any concern for his/her stuttering. This track typically resembles the behaviors of a "neurogenic dysfluent"

Fluency Disorders 02

2007-06-11T11:00:00.000-07:00

The Measurement of Stuttering Behavior Part II of II

How does one define stuttering?

The answer to this question becomes increasingly important when working with a person who stutters. Over the years, research into stuttering has contributed several ways to define the phenomenon better known as stuttering. Here are 2 of the 5 ways to define stuttering behavior. The clinician should become familiar with the advantages and limitations of each method before using them.

4) Speech Rate

Since stuttering tends to slow down the speech output of a stutterer, one objective way to measure stuttering behavior is to calculate a speakers verbal output rate (speech rate). There are several ways to do
this. One method is to measure the speaker's speech rate in words per minute (wpm). Words per minute is measured by taking the total number of words produced and dividing that by the total speaking time.

For example, John a stutterer has produced 150 words in 2 minutes of speaking time. His average speech rate in words per minute would be 75 (wpm). Bloodstein (1944) found that the oral reading rate of adult stutterers was 123 words per minute. The range for thirty adult stutterers was 42 to 191 words per minute. In comparison, the same material read by a group of non-stutterers produced an average speech rate of 167 words per minute, with a range of 129 to 222 (wpm). Clearly, the verbal output of stutterers was reduced compared to that of non-stutterers.

5) Ratings of Severity

One subjective way of measuring stuttering behavior is via listener perception of speech output. In this measure the listener rates the stutterer's speech output against some rating scale.

For example, the listener would characterize the stutterers speech as mildly dysfluent, moderately dysfluent or severely dysfluent.

Fluency Disorders 01

2007-06-11T10:55:00.000-07:00

The Measurement of Stuttering Behavior Part I of II

How does one define stuttering?

The answer to this question becomes increasingly important when working with a person who stutters. Over the years, research into stuttering has contributed several ways to define the phenomenon better known as stuttering. Here are 3 of the 5 ways to define stuttering behavior. The clinician should become familiar with the advantages and limitations of each method before using them.

1) Frequency of stuttering

This measure is expressed in terms of a number or percentage of moments of stuttered words or syllables.

For example, if John "stutters" on 5 out of 10 words he produces. We can say that John is dysfluent 50% of the time by dividing 5 into 10, we come up with a percentage.

2) Mean duration of stutterings

This measure is expressed in terms of the time (in seconds or minutes) that a stutterer is in a "stuttering block".

For example, If John produced a multiple syllable repetition of the word "dog" and was stuck in that block for 5 seconds. The mean duration of his stuttering would relate to the time that he was repeating "dog" or 5 seconds.

3) Frequency of specified disfluency types

This measure is expressed in terms of the actual number of times the stutterer displays a "stuttering behavior". In order to use this method the clinician should first identify the types of behaviors which constitute stuttering.

For example, multiple syllable repetitions, tense prolongations, etc. Next the clinician will note the actual number of times the stutterer exhibits a syllable repetition, tense prolongation, etc.

Developmental Milestones

2007-06-11T10:52:00.000-07:00

At age 2-3 months the child:

o Turns head towards voice, rattle, music
o Gains full visual focus
o Visually recognizes caregiver
o Raises head and chest when lying on stomach
o Smiles reflexively
o Quiets self with sucking
o Repeats own actions
o Visually scales for sounds

At age 4-6 months the child:

o Plays with fingers, puts hands together
o Pulls to sit, can sit propped for 10-15 minutes
o Rolls over
o Enjoys being pulled to standing position
o Begins to produce adult like vowels
o Reacts differently to scolding voice than to a soothing voice
o Produces double syllables (baba)
o Turns to sound of rattle, voice, music

At age 7-9 months the child:

o Understands "no"
o Participates in speech gesture games (e.g. patty-cake)
o Begins Variegated babbling (e.g. pabapaba)
o Begins to develop object permanence

At age 10-12 months the child

o Utters first true word
o Understand his/her own name

Components of Language

2007-06-11T10:40:00.000-07:00

I. Language can be divided into 3 components

o Form (syntax, morphology, phonology)
- Syntax contains the rules that dictate the acceptable sequence, combination and function of words in a sentence
- Morphology indicates how morphemes are combined to form words
- Phonology is the study of the sound system of a language
o Content (semantics or meaning)
- Includes the relations between language, thought and behavior
o Use (pragmatics or function)
- Set of rules governing the use of language in context
- The way language is used to communicate

II. Morphemes

o Morphemes are the smallest grammatical unit that contains meaning.
o Free Morphemes
- Independent and can stand alone to form words or parts of words (e.g. boy)
o Bound Morphemes
- Grammatical tags or markers that cannot stand alone (e.g. plural -ls, -est, -ly)

III. Formalist versus Functionalist Model

o The formalist model views the 5 aspects of language (syntax, morphology, phonology, semantics and pragmatics as being equally important
o The functionalist model states that language is heavily influenced by context and that a need to communicate exists prior to the selection of content and form.

Models of Language Development 04

2007-06-11T09:26:00.000-07:00

I. Social Interactionism Theory

o Concentrated on the underlying reasons or social/communicative functions of language (language function is critical to the development of language)
o Speech acts are an intentional verbally encoded message

II. Elements of a speech act

o Propositional force
- Contains the actual meaning (e.g. "thats noisy" means "thats
loud")
o Illocutionary force
- The speaker's intentions (e.g. "thats noisy" speakers
intention is to get the volume turned down)
o Halliday studied the speech acts of children and developed a speech taxonomy which described early function utterances (a child's language is composed of an instrumental, interactive, personal, informative, imaginative, heuristic and regulatory function)
o Dore studied single word utterances and developed a speech act taxonomy that described a child's single word utterances (children use words to label, repeat, answer, request action, request answer, call, greet, protest and practice).

III. Contributions of Cognitive Theory

o Theory emphasizes language use (pragmatics)
o Theory stresses mother/infant interactions

IV. Limitations of Cognitive Theory

o Does not explain how children acquire language

Models of Language Development 03

2007-06-11T09:22:00.000-07:00

I. Cognitive Theory

o Proponents of this theory assert that explanations of language development must include statements regarding "meaning" or semantics.
o Cognitive theory emphasizes knowledge, attention, memory, auditory and visual perception.
o Development of cognition is a prerequisite for linguistic expression
o Child must acquire knowledge of words before actually producing them.
o Cognitive theorists view language development as an emergence of cognitive growth.

II. Contributions of Cognitive Theory

o Offers a description of child language that more closely approximates the reality of the child.
o Offers a clear relationship between child and adult language skills.
o Stresses the importance of observing linguistic and non-linguistic cues.

III. Limitations of Cognitive Theory

o Does not explain why some children with normal cognitive abilities do not acquire language at the level expected (e.g. deaf children have a difficult time learning spoken language even though they may have normal or above normal cognitive skills)
o Cognition does not always precede language abilities. At approximately 3-4 years of age, there appears to be some carryover in which language equals cognition or precedes it.

Models of Language Development 02

2007-06-11T09:18:00.000-07:00

I. Nativist Theory

o Chomsky was interested in a theory of universal grammatical rules of language.
o Chomsky stated that the capacity to learn language was innate.
o Nativist Theory stresses language form (syntax) and underlying mental processes.
o Theory states that children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD)
o In order to trigger this LAD device, the child needs input from the environment, however language is innate therefore the environment's role is minimal

II. Two levels of linguistic processing

o Phrase structure rules
- Phrase structure grammar must contain a noun and a verb
o Transformational rules
- Rules for changing phrase structure rules
* Surface structure is the actual sentence the child produces (e.g. John prefers steak)
* Deep structure is the underlying meaning of the sentence the child wants to produce (e.g. John would like steak)

III. Contributions of Nativist Theory

o Chomsky tried to explain universal language processes
o Offered a view that language learning is not externally imposed but develops from internal processing mechanisms.

IV. Limitations of Nativist Theory

o Transformational grammar emphasizes syntactic structures, but virtually ignores the contributions of phonetics, semantics and pragmatics.
o A syntax based model is inappropriate for describing single-word and two-word levels of language development.
o De-emphasizes the importance of the environment in early social and cognitive growth
o Issue of innateness is the weakest. To assume that the ability to use language is innate does little to facilitate an understanding of the actual process of language development (Chomsky was applying adult rules to explain how children develop language)

Models of Language Development 01

2007-06-11T09:14:00.000-07:00

I. Behavioral Theory (Learning theory)

o B.F. Skinner most noted researcher of this theory.
o States that language is a learned behavior
o Based on modeling, imitation, practice and reinforcement
o States that the child's interaction with the environment is crucial;
o Children learn through their interactions with the environment

Example: The child begins to babble (universal sounds) through conditioning, sounds of babbling become modified. Sounds of English are reinforced. Non-English sounds become extinct. The child puts sounds together. Mom shapes the words. (e.g child says "dus", mom says "oh you want juice")

II. Contributions of Behavioral Theory

o Environmental Input is now recognized as critical to language development.
o Behaviors identified by Skinner and other operant psychologists have proven to be very useful in language training and provide a basis for most remedial programs.
o Modeling and shaping techniques are used frequently in therapy.

III. Limitations of Behavioral Theory

o Adult speech provides a very poor model (adult to adult speech characterized by false starts, dysfluencies and revisions).
o Child could not possibly learn through imitation all of the utterances that they are capable of producing.